Variables Referentes al Capital y la Responsabilidad Social Relacionadas con Conductas de Precaución Contra el COVID-19 en Tres Muestras Mexicanas / Variables Referring to Social Capital and Responsibility Associated to Precautionary Behaviors against COVID-19 in Three Mexican Samples

Resumen Cumplir con las medidas de prevención de la salud es fundamental para controlar brotes de enfermedades infecciosas como aquellos causados por la COVID-19. Se han realizados numerosas investigaciones para comprender algunas variables psicosociales (desde personalidad hasta diferencias culturales) asociadas con las conductas de precaución en contextos de pandemia. Sin embargo, se sabe poco sobre el papel que el capital y la responsabilidad social pueden jugar en estos comportamientos de precaución en el contexto de la pandemia del COVID-19. El presente trabajo aborda variables psicológicas asociadas con el capital social y conductas socialmente responsables (e.g. amabilidad, empatía, apoyo social, justicia, impulsividad, conducta cívica), que ayudan a un grupo a desarrollar actividades socialmente valiosas propiciando el cumplimiento de las medidas de prevención. El presente estudio evaluó el efecto del capital social y variables asociadas (e.g., personalidad, apoyo social) en comportamientos precautorios relacionados con el COVID-19. Se utilizaron regresiones jerárquicas y modelos mediacionales en 3 diferentes muestras mexicanas (muestra 1: n=709, muestra 2: n=718, muestra 3: n= 309). Los resultados muestran que las variables asociadas con la responsabilidad social evaluadas aquí, con excepción de la legitimidad y la justicia distributiva, se relacionan con un mayor reporte de conductas de precaución. Estos resultados sugieren un enfoque encaminado a aumentar el capital y la responsabilidad social para reducir el efecto de enfermedades infecciosas como el COVID-19.

Abstract Compliance with health protection measures is essential to control outbreaks of infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Extensive research has been done in the pursuit of understanding psychosocial variables (e.g., personality to cultural differences) associated with precautionary behaviors. However, little is known about the role social capital and responsibility may play on these behaviors in the context of COVID-19. The present work assessed psychological variables associated with social capital and responsibility (e.g. agreeableness, empathy, social support, justice, impulsivity, civic behaviors), which help the development of socially valuable activities leading individuals to comply with preventative measures. The present study, using 3 different Mexican samples (sample 1, n=709; sample 2, n=718; sample 3, n= 309) explored the effect of social capital, civic culture, and associated variables (e.g., personality, social support) on COVID-19 related precautionary behaviors using hierarchical linear regressions and mediational models. In the first sample, we explored the relationship between empathy, impulsivity, and precautionary behaviors. In the second sample, we explored whether trust in authorities, social support, and social pressure predicted these behaviors. In the third sample, we used a longitudinal design to assess the mediating role of prosocial and socially responsible behaviors between personality and precautionary behaviors. Results from the first sample showed that empathy predicted precautionary behaviors. In the second sample, we observed that although legitimacy and distributive justice did not predict precautionary behaviors, social pressure had a negative and social support had a positive effect on these behaviors. Finally, our longitudinal data suggested that those who report higher conscientiousness and agreeableness also report more socially responsible and prosocial behaviors and in turn report higher precautionary behaviors. In general, results from all samples, showed that the variables associated with social capital and responsibility are significantly related with increased report of precautionary behaviors. These results suggest that efforts should be focused on increasing social capital and responsibility while seeking to reduce the spread and deleterious effects of infectious diseases like COVID-19.

Social and personal control, legitimacy of authorities, and social cohesion as protective factors of anti-sociality in adolescents / Control social y personal, legitimidad de las autoridades y cohesión social como factores protectores de la conducta antisocial en adolescentes

Abstract Law can shape individual and social behavior in different ways including through perceived control and legitimacy of authorities. The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether legitimacy of authorities, social and personal control, and social cohesion influence antisocial behaviors in juvenile offenders. The study, included a sample of two hundred juvenile offenders in Mexico, used structural equation modeling to test the relationship between the perception of just treatment by police and judges (i.e., legitimacy) and social and personal control and outcomes of antisocial behaviors and tendencies (self-report and probability of antisocial behavior as well as reports of peer antisocial behavior). Results indicate legitimacy of authorities and personal control had a negative effect while social control showed a positive effect on these behaviors. Social cohesion had a positive effect on social control. Our results suggest that legitimacy of authorities and personal control act as protective factors against antisocial behaviors whereas, contrary to the expected results, social control may be a risk factor. This research highlights the importance of preventative protective efforts in juvenile offenders such as just treatment and development of personal control rather than the use of punitive processes. In this sense, it is important to consider alternatives for judicial involvement and punishment such as community programs as well as cognitive and emotional prevention and intervention efforts to reduce antisocial behaviors. Programs such as the Reasoning and Rehabilitation Program, other cognitive skill interventions as well as developmental prevention programs have shown efficacy.

Resumen La ley puede modelar la conducta de diferentes maneras, consecuentemente, el objetivo de este estudio fue analizar los efectos de la legitimidad, el control social y personal, y la cohesión social en la conducta antisocial de jóvenes infractores. Doscientos menores infractores en México contestaron un cuestionario realizado para este estudio. Los datos fueron analizados a través de ecuaciones estructurales. Cuatro factores fueron especificados: Legitimidad de las autoridades, relacionada con la percepción de tratamiento justo por parte de policías y jueces. Disuasión y norma social conformaron la variable de control social. Orientación al futuro, normas personales y autodeterminación integraron la variable de control personal. La variable conducta antisocial resultó del autoreporte respecto a la conducta antisocial y la probabilidad de conducta antisocial, y del reporte de la conducta antisocial de los amigos. Los resultados indicaron un efecto negativo de la legitimidad y el control personal y uno positivo del control social en la conducta antisocial. La cohesión social tuvo un efecto positivo en el control social. Contrario a lo esperado el control social tuvo un efecto positivo en la conducta antisocial. Por lo tanto, se deben considerar alternativas al "tratamiento" en internamiento (cárcel), ya que la disuasión y el castigo no producen los efectos esperados de retraer a los adolescentes de que cometan delitos. La alternativa pudiera ser los programas de tratamiento comunitarios, así como programas de prevención e intervención que contemplen aspectos emocionales y cognitivos.

Los efectos de la inteligencia emocional, la legitimidad y la disuasión en la conducta antisocial / The effects of emotional intelligence, legitimacy and deterrence on antisocial behavior

Resumen Investigaciones previas sugieren que las conductas antisociales y delictivas son más prevalentes en individuos que presentan una baja inteligencia emocional, así como en aquellos que perciben una baja probabilidad de sanción y una nula legitimidad de las autoridades. El objetivo de esta investigación rue analizar los efectos de la inteligencia emocional, la disuasión (específicamente la percepción de probabilidad de recibir sanción) y la legitimidad de las autoridades en la conducta antisocial en reclusos en comparación con un grupo control. El grupo de reclusos estuvo compuesto por 105 sujetos provenientes de un Centro de Reinserción Social de una ciudad del noroeste de México, con una media de edad de 32.03 años (DE = 8.986); y el grupo control, por 105 adultos sin antecedentes penales, con una media de edad de 32.08 años (DE= 10.094). Ambas muestras seleccionadas por conveniencia. Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas en las escalas de inteligencia emocional (t = -4.14, p < .001), legitimidad (t = -3.09, p < .01) y probabilidad de castigo (t = -4.66, p < .001): específicamente, la d de Cohen indicó que la muestra control presentó mayor inteligencia emocional (d=-0.81), mayor percepción de legitimidad (d=-0.60) y mayor percepción de probabilidad de sanción (d=-0.90) en contraste con la muestra de reclusos. Dentro del modelo de ecuaciones estructurales, las variables de inteligencia emocional y percepción de probabilidad de castigo influyeron en el comportamiento antisocial, lo cual indica que posiblemente las competencias emocionales podrían repercutir sobre el temor de recibir alguna sanción ante la comisión de determinadas conductas antisociales.

Abstract Previous research suggests that antisocial and criminal behaviors are more prevalent in individuals with low emotional intelligence, as well as in those who perceive a low probability of punishment and no legitimacy of authorities. The aim of this research was to analyze the effects of emotional intelligence, deterrence (specifically, the perception of the probability of receiving a sanction), and the legitimacy of authorities on antisocial behavior in inmates compared to a control group. The group of inmates was composed of 105 adults from a Social Reinsertion Center in a city in northwestern Mexico, with a mean age of 32.03 years (SD = 8.986); and the control group was composed of 105 adults with no criminal record, with a mean age of 32.08 years (SD = 10.094). Both samples were selected by convenience. Significant differences were detected in the scales of emotional intelligence (t = -4.14, p <.001), legitimacy (t = -3.09, p <.01), and probability of punishment (t = -4.66, p <.001). The control group presented higher emotional intelligence (d = -0.81), higher perception of legitimacy (d = -0.60), and higher perception of probability of punishment (d = -0.90) in contrast to the inmate sample. A Structural Equations Model (SEM) showed that emotional intelligence and perceived probability of punishment influenced antisocial behavior, which indicates that emotional competences may have an impact on the fear of being sanctioned when committing certain antisocial behaviors.

Behavioral Activation System and Early Life Parental Abuse Are Associated with Antisocial Behaviors in Mexican Adolescents.

Antisocial behavior (AB) is a complex phenomenon, predicted by a wide range of biological, environmental, and personality factors. These have high human and economic costs especially in adolescents, highlighting the importance of investigating factors that may be associated with these behaviors. Among the most potent predictors of AB are early life experiences and personality. To this end, the present study sought to investigate the association between early life parental abuse and behavioral activation system (BAS) personality traits assessed within the reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) framework and antisocial behaviors in Mexican adolescents. Our sample consisted of 342 adolescents (Mage = 17, SD = 2.47) from northwestern Mexico. Participants, after parental consent and participant consent/assent (if minors), self-reported early life parental abuse, current BAS personality traits, and antisocial behaviors. Through structural equation models, our results suggest there is a positive association between early life parental abuse and antisocial behaviors, as well as a negative association with BAS personality traits (R2 = 37%). These results contribute to the current literature by suggesting that personality and environmental variables can predict adolescent antisocial behaviors. Future studies should explore the interplay between these variables longitudinally and investigate both risk and protective factors, as well as negative and positive outcomes.

Positive University Environment and Agreeableness as Protective Factors Against Antisocial Behavior in Mexican University Students.

Violence in schools is a global issue. Approximately 32% of Mexican students have experienced some form of violence in the school setting in their lives. Previous research has tended to focus on the causes of violence and antisocial behaviors in offenders or adolescent samples and has found evidence to suggest the underlying role of environmental and personal factors. The present study investigates the effect of positive school environment and agreeableness as protective factors against antisocial behaviors in a sample of undergraduate and graduate students (n = 304) from northwestern Mexico. Our results demonstrate that a positive school environment has a negative effect on antisocial behaviors via mood and anxiety disorders as well as in interaction with agreeableness, suggesting an interplay between personality and environment. These findings can provide some basis for the development of university programs aimed at fostering positive environments that promote student mental health and protect against antisocial behaviors.

Psychological Predictors of Precautionary Behaviors in Response to COVID-19: A Structural Model.

The first lines of defense during an epidemic are behavioral interventions, including stay-at-home measures or precautionary health training, aimed at reducing contact and disease transmission. Examining the psychosocial variables that may lead to greater adoption of such precautionary behaviors is critical. The present study examines predictors of precautionary practices against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in 709 Mexican participants from 24 states. The study was conducted via online questionnaire between the end of March and the beginning of April 2020, when the pandemic response was in its initial stages in Mexico. The instrument included demographic items, as well as scales assessing COVID-19-resembling symptoms, empathy, impulsivity, anhedonic depression, general health practices, alcohol consumption, and COVID-19-associated precautionary behaviors. Most participants reported adopting limited social distancing or other precautionary behaviors against COVID-19. The results of a structural equation model demonstrated that the presence of COVID-19 symptoms was related to impulsivity and general health behaviors. However, no direct association between precautionary behaviors and the presence of COVID-19 symptoms was found. In turn, precautionary behaviors were more prevalent among participants who reported higher empathy and general health behaviors and were inhibited indirectly by impulsivity via alcohol consumption. Furthermore, the model suggests that anhedonic depression symptoms have a negative indirect effect on precautionary behaviors via general health behaviors. Finally, impulsivity showed a negative direct effect on general health behavior. These results highlight the role that general physical health and mental health play on precautionary behavior and the critical importance of addressing issues such as depression, general health behaviors, and impulsivity in promoting safe actions and the protection of self and others.

Positive Environments and Precautionary Behaviors During the COVID-19 Outbreak.

Theoretically, a positive environment (PE) includes (a) tangible and intangible resources that satisfy human needs, (b) enablers of healthy, pro-social, and pro-environmental behaviors that guarantee socio-environmental quality and wellbeing, and (c) environmental challenges that must be faced and solved. One of the most salient challenges is the global COVID-19 pandemic. This study sought to investigate whether PEs can stimulate responsible actions (i.e., self-care and precautionary behaviors against COVID-19), while maintaining personal wellbeing. Nine hundred and forty-nine Mexicans participated in an online survey encompassing five primary factors: resources, enablers, challenges, responsible health behaviors, and wellbeing. The first three factors examine "resources" such as physical infrastructure as well as family and social support, "enablers" which include information about protective health practices and perceived legitimacy of authorities in handling the pandemic, and "challenges" encompassing threat perception and social pressure to not engage in precautionary measures. Participants also self-reported hedonic wellbeing as well as self-care and precautionary behaviors, which formed the "responsible (health) behavior" factor. Structural equations model (n = 714 after list-wise deletion) showed that "resources," "challenges," and "enablers" form a second-order factor, "positive environments," and this factor strongly covaries with "responsible behavior" and "wellbeing." These results suggest that PEs are not only buffers against the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic but can also stimulate effective responses against a threat while maintaining individual wellbeing. These results can be used to inform the development and maintenance of PE frameworks aimed at minimizing the spread of COVID-19 and encouraging mental and physical health.

Diferencias entre apoyo social y ambiente familiar en adolescentes con reportes de bienestar subjetivo / Differences between social support and family environment in adolescents with reports of subjective well-being

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar la relación entre los distintos factores relativos al ambiente familiar, el conocimiento y el goce de derechos familiares, y el apoyo social con adolescentes altos en bienestar subjetivo. Previo consentimiento informado, participaron 259 estudiantes de escuelas secundarias con niveles de excelencia en el rendimiento académico en una ciudad del noroeste de México. Como resultados el valor de lambda de Wilks = 0,659 y su valor transformado (x2 (10) = 104,14; p = 0,000) resultan significativos. Las variables evaluadas de ambiente familiar positivo y apoyo social, a excepción del conocimiento y goce de derechos familiares, discriminaron significativamente a estudiantes con reportes altos de bienestar. En conclusión, si el adolescente reporta un ambiente familiar positivo y apoyo social, mayor es la probabilidad de bienestar subjetivo.

Abstract The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between positive family environment variables, knowledge and exercise of family rights as well as social support in adolescents with high subjective well-being. After informed consent, 259 high school students participated with levels of excellence in academic performance in a city in northwestern of Mexico. As a result, the lambda de Wilks value = 0,659 and its transformed value (x.2 (10) = 104,14; p = 0,000) are significant. The variables evaluated of positive family environment and social support, with the exception for knowledge and enjoyment of family rights, discriminated significantly students with high reports of well-being. In conclusion, if the adolescent reports a positive family environment and social support, the greater the probability of subjective well-being.

Variables Contextuales e Individuales Relacionadas con la Crianza Positiva Materna / Contextual and Individual Variables Related to Maternal Positive Parenting Style

Resumen Según la teoría del desarrollo de la psicopatología, algunas trayectorias del desarrollo resultan en adaptación, otras en psicopatología. Nuestra hipótesis es que algunas variables positivas son funcionales a la adaptación psicológica y participan en nicho adaptativos, que son contextos donde regularmente encontramos las competencias adaptativas, como el estilo de crianza positivo materno. El objetivo del estudio fue probar en un modelo de trayectorias, la interdependencia funcional de variables contextuales e individuales en el estilo de crianza positivo materno. La muestra se conformó por 254 madres, seleccionadas de las escuelas de alto o bajo aprovechamiento escolar donde sus hijos o hijas estudiaban. Las variables medidas en el modelo fueron cohesión social del vecindario, apoyo social de la familia, salud percibida, autorregulación, autoestima y bienestar psicológico. Los resultados apoyan la hipótesis y muestran la interrelación funcional de las variables en el modelo probado, y también la presencia de un nicho adaptativo en el contexto del estilo de crianza positivo materno, que puede ser usado como ejemplo para futuras investigaciones.

Abstract According to developmental psychopathology theory, psychological development takes different trajectories that can result in adaptation or psychopathology. We hypothesize that some positive contextual and individual variables are functional to psychological adaptation and participate in adaptive niches, which constitute the context where we regularly found the positive competences, as is exemplified by maternal positive parenting style. The aim of the study was to prove in a path model, the functional interdependence of individual and contextual variables in maternal positive parenting style. The sample was formed by 254 mothers, selected from low and high level of academic achievement schools, where their sons or daughters were studying. The variables measured in the model were neighborhood's social cohesion, family's social support, perceived health, self-regulation, self-esteem, and psychological well-being. The results support the hypothesis and show the functional interrelationships of the variables in the model proved, and also the presence of an adaptive niche in maternal positive parenting style, which could be used as an example for future studies.

Factores que Influyen en el Desarrollo y Rendimiento Escolar de los Jóvenes de Bachillerato / Factors that Influence Development and School Achievement on High School Youth / Fatores que Influenciam no Desenvolvimento e no Rendimento Escolar dos Jovens do Ensino Fundamental e Médio

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las variables que influyen en el aprovechamiento escolar de los jóvenes. Se configuró una batería de pruebas para medir autoeficacia, autodeterminación, autorregulación, aspectos del contexto escolar y familiar, y espiritualidad. La muestra fue de 250 estudiantes regulares de nivel medio superior. Se estimaron estadísticas univariadas, se calcularon índices y se probó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales en el que se formaron 2 factores: desarrollo positivo del joven y recurso institucional familiar. La variable de contexto escolar tuvo una influencia directa en el factor familiar y este, a su vez, en el desarrollo positivo del joven, el cual afectó directamente al promedio de los alumnos.

The objective of this study was to analyze the variables that influence the school achievement of young people. A battery of tests was organized to measure self-efficacy, self-determination, self-regulation, aspects of the school and family context, and spirituality. The sample consisted of 250 regular students on the middle school level. Univariate statistics were estimated, indexes were calculated and a model of structural equations was tested in which 2 factors emerged: positive development of the youngster and family institutional resource. The school context directly influenced the family factor and this, in turn, influenced the positive development of youngsters, which directly affected students' GPA.

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar as variáveis que influenciam no aproveitamento escolar dos jovens. Configurou-se uma série de provas para medir autoeficácia, autodeterminação, autorregulação, aspectos do contexto escolar e familiar, e espiritualidade. A amostra foi de 250 estudantes regulares de nível médio superior. Foram estimadas estatísticas univariadas; calcularam-se índices e provou-se um modelo de equações estruturais no qual se formaram dois fatores: desenvolvimento positivo do jovem e recurso institucional familiar. A variável de contexto escolar teve uma influência direta no fator familiar e este, por sua vez, no desenvolvimento positivo do jovem, o que afetou diretamente a média dos alunos.

Análisis de factores que influyen en el desarrollo de normas ambientales y en la conducta anti-ecológica / Analysis of factors influencing the development of environmental norms and anti-ecological behavior

El propósito del presente estudio fue evaluar el impacto de variables presumiblemente relacionadas con el desarrollo de normas ambientales, dado que las transgresiones ambientales son una forma particular de conducta antisocial. 186 estudiantes de licenciatura en una universidad mexicana contestaron un cuestionario que midió su auto-reporte de comportamiento anti-ecológico (considerado como variable dependiente, VD), sus normas personales, sus normas sociales, su identidad social, su percepción de legitimidad en las autoridades y en los procesos jurídicos, y la disuasión que detectaban en los marcos legales. Los datos fueron analizados a través de un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados del mismo mostraron que las normas personales y sociales tuvieron un efecto directo en la conducta antiecológica, siendo negativo el de las primeras y positivo el de las segundas, mientras que la disuasión influyó negativa e indirectamente en la VD, a través de las normas sociales. La legitimidad percibida tuvo un efecto indirecto y negativo en la conducta anti-ecológica, a través de la disuasión y de las normas sociales y personales. Los resultados son coherentes con estudios previos acerca del seguimiento de normas ordinarias, en donde las normas sociales y la disuasión ejercen sus efectos a través de la internalización de las primeras, manifestándose como normas morales personales.(AU)

This paper is aimed at evaluating the impact of variables presumably related to the development of environmental norms, assuming that environmental transgressions are a particular manifestation of antisocial behavior. 186 undergraduate students responded to a questionnaire assessing their self-reported anti-ecological behavior (considered as dependent variable, DV), their personal norms, their social norms, their perception of authority’s and legal processes’ legitimacy, and the dissuasion they detected in legal structures. Data were analyzed using a structural equations model, which revealed that personal and social norms directly affected anti-ecological behavior, being negative the effect of the former and positive the influence of the latter; while dissuasion indirectly and negatively influenced such behavior, through social norms. Perceived legitimacy had an indirect and negative effect on the DV, mediated by dissuasion and social and personal norms. These results are coherently connected with previous studies regarding the obedience of ordinary norms, in which social norms and dissuasion exert their effects through the internalization of ordinary norms, which are manifested as personal moral norms.(AU)

Menores indigentes: factores personales y comunitarios que se vinculan con la vivencia en las calles / Underage indigents: personal and communitarian factors related with the street life

El objetivo de este trabajo fue poner a prueba un modelo ecológico de comportamiento. Se emplearon dos muestras, una integrada por menores indigentes y la otra por escolares igualados por ingreso familiar, edad y sexo. El modelo fue probado mediante el análisis confirmatorio multimuestra, encontrándose que el exosistema se conformó por las variables de comportamiento antisocial, comportamiento adictivo y violencia comunitaria. El microsistema se integró por violencia intrafamiliar, maltrato físico del padre y maltrato físico de la madre. El ontosistema se formó por impulsividad, locus de control externo y la percepción del menor sobre la indigencia.

Predictores de la conducta antisocial juvenil: un modelo ecológico / Juvenil antisocial behavior: the ecological model

Este estudio pone a prueba un modelo ecológico como marco teórico explicativo de la antisocialidad juvenil. 204 jóvenes mexicanos que cursaban la educación secundaria o preparatoria contestaron un cuestionario con preguntas acerca de la violencia intrafamiliar, su conducta antisocial, la ingesta de alcohol de sus madres, los problemas de conducta escolar, algunas características del ambiente familiar, escolar y del barrio y las actitudes acerca de la violencia. Los datos fueron analizados a través de un modelo estructural en el cual las variables investigadas constituyeron factores e índices que representaban a los niveles de la teoría ecológica. Los resultados mostraron que el microsistema tuvo un efecto directo en la conducta antisocial de los menores, el exosistema mostró un efecto también directo en el microsistema y por lo tanto uno indirecto en la conducta antisocial de los menores, y el macrosistema tuvo un efecto directo en el exosistema y uno indirecto en la antisocialidad de los jóvenes. Lo anterior parece respaldar el modelo ecológico, como explicación coherente de la conducta antisocial en los menores (AU)

Predictores de la conducta antisocial juvenil: un modelo ecológico / Juvenil antisocial behavior: the ecological model

Este estudio pone a prueba un modelo ecológico como marco teórico explicativo de la antisocialidad juvenil. 204 jóvenes mexicanos que cursaban la educación secundaria o preparatoria contestaron un cuestionario con preguntas acerca de la violencia intrafamiliar, su conducta antisocial, la ingesta de alcohol de sus madres, los problemas de conducta escolar, algunas características del ambiente familiar, escolar y del barrio y las actitudes acerca de la violencia. Los datos fueron analizados a través de un modelo estructural en el cual las variables investigadas constituyeron factores e índices que representaban a los niveles de la teoría ecológica. Los resultados mostraron que el microsistema tuvo un efecto directo en la conducta antisocial de los menores, el exosistema mostró un efecto también directo en el microsistema y por lo tanto uno indirecto en la conducta antisocial de los menores, y el macrosistema tuvo un efecto directo en el exosistema y uno indirecto en la antisocialidad de los jóvenes. Lo anterior parece respaldar el modelo ecológico, como explicación coherente de la conducta antisocial en los menores.

Residential water consumption, motivation for conserving water and the continuing tragedy of the commons.

This paper explores the effect of the perception of externalities (PE) on residential water consumption. Externalities occur when individuals make decisions that harm others, without concern for the impact or feeling a need to compensate for the harm. The aim of this study was to investigate whether PE affects people's motivation to conserve water, and, consequently, the practice of residential water consumption. Two hundred eighty Mexican citizens responded to a questionnaire investigating how they perceived that other individuals in their community wasted water. Respondents were also asked about their motives to conserve water, and direct observations of individual water consumption were recorded. Results were processed within a structural equations model, which revealed that motives to conserve water significantly inhibit water consumption. Since the perception of extemalities also inhibits conservation motives, the resulting effect of PE on water consumption is positive. This result means that the more people perceive that others waste water, the less their conservation motives, and, therefore, the more their own water consumption.

Long-term effects of child punishment on Mexican women: a structural model.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate long-term effects of parental use of physical and verbal punishment on Mexican women. To study both direct and indirect effects of these phenomena, a structural model was developed and tested. METHOD: One hundred and fifty Mexican women were interviewed with regard to their history of child abuse, their level of depression, alcohol use, antisocial behavior, and punishment of their own children. Factors representing such constructs were specified within a structural equation model and their inter-relations were estimated. Women's history of abuse was considered as an exogenous latent variable directly affecting three other factors: mothers' antisocial behavior, their alcohol consumption, and their levels of depression or anxiety. These factors, in turn, were specified as influencing mothers' harsh discipline of their own children. RESULTS: Data supported this model, indicating that a history of abuse has long-term effects on women's behavior and psychological functioning, which in turn cause women's punitive behavior against their children. CONCLUSIONS: These results are discussed in terms of the theoretical framework of intergenerational transmission of violence. The direct consequences (depression, anxiety, alcohol consumption, and antisocial behavior) of child punishment act as risk factors for the next generation of child abuse.